The caliphate of 'Ali, Uthman, and Umar

Bay'ah (oath of allegiance) of caliphate:

A week after the martyrdom of 'Uthmaan Ibn Affaan Bay'ah (oath of allegiance) was taken on Thul-Hijjah 25, 35 AH, at the hands of 'Ali in Al-Madeenah. Following the martyrdom of 'Uthmaan Ibn Affaan, his murderers were going strong in Al-Madeenah.

At first, they forced the people of Al-Madeenah to elect a caliph under threat. The majority of the rioters leaned towards 'Ali and the same situation prevailed throughout Al-Madeenah. When the people went to 'Ali to take Bay'ah, he said, "You pledge your allegiance to me but this is not enough unless the Companions of Badr (those who participated in the battle of Badr along with the Prophet) accept me as caliph." Hearing this, they went to the Companions of Badr and brought them in a group to 'Ali . Maalik Al-Ashtar, was the first to take Bay'ah, and then the others followed him.

'Ali then asked them to find out the intentions of Talhah and Az-Zubayr . Maalik Al-Ashtar went to Talhah and Hukaym Ibn Jabalah contacted Az-Zubayr and both of them were forcibly brought to 'Ali, who told them that he was ready to take Bay'ah at the hands of anyone who had a desire to become the Caliph. They flatly rejected the offer. They were then asked to take Bay'ah at the hands of 'Ali. At this, they began to ponder. Thereupon Maalik Al-Ashtar said to Talhah drawing his sword, "The matter is to be decided right now."

In response to the demand of the situation, Talhah said to 'Ali "I will take Bay'ah provided you issue orders to take actions according to the limits set by the Book of Allaah and the Sunnah of His Messenger , and take Qisaas (retaliation) from the murderers of 'Uthmaan Ibn Affan ."

'Ali promised to do the needful. Talhah took Bay'ah extending his hand which had become lame following the injuries he received during the battle of Uhud. Some people took it as an ill omen. Az-Zubayr also agreed to take Bay'ah with the same conditions put forward by Talhah .

Second day of the caliphate:

Next day Talhah and Az-Zubayr called on 'Ali and said that they had pledged their support to him on the condition that retaliation measures would be taken against the murderers of 'Uthmaan. If he failed then their Bay'ah would stand as null and void. 'Ali said, "I shall take the necessary Qisaas from the murderers of 'Uthmaan, and do full justice to one and all. But until now the rioters are too strong and the state of caliphate has not yet been consolidated, I can only pay attention to this after the return to normalcy. Nothing can be done at present."

Mu'aawiyah's position:

'Ali sent a letter to Mu'aawiyah through Jareer Ibn 'Abdullaah and Sabrah Al-Juhani in Damascus. For three months no reply came and Mu'aawiyah kept the Caliph's emissary waiting. After that he handed over a sealed letter to his emissary Qabisah Al-'Absi and sent him accompanied by Jareer Ibn 'Abdullaah. The letter was clearly addressed to all. They reached in the month of Rabee' Al-Awwal 36 AH. The emissary gave Mu'aawiyah's letter to 'Ali . When the envelope was opened, it contained no letter. 'Ali looked towards the emissary angrily. The emissary shuddered from within and said, "I am an emissary and safety of life is my right." 'Ali said: "Yes, you are safe." The emissary then said, "Nobody will pledge support to you. I have seen sixty thousand souls weeping over the bloodstained shirt of 'Uthmaan Ibn Affaan. They have also put the shirt on the grand mosque of Damascus to provoke the people." 'Ali said, "They want to take the revenge of 'Uthmaan on me even though I stood absolved from 'Uthmaan's blood. May Allaah deal with the murderers of 'Uthmaan." Saying this, he returned the emissary to Mu'aawiyah.

Preparations for the invasion on Syria:

When the people of Al-Madeenah came to know of the strained relations between 'Ali and Mu'aawiyah, they feared further bloodshed. They sent Ziyaad Ibn Hanthalah to 'Ali as a feeler. 'Ali asked him to get ready. "What for?" Ziyaad asked. "For invading Syria," 'Ali firmly replied. "You should deal with them rather gently," he suggested. "No, the insurgents must be punished," 'Ali said. Knowing the intentions of 'Ali, both Talhah and Az-Zubayr called on 'Ali and sought permission to go to Makkah to perform 'Umrah.

'Ali allowed them to leave Al-Madeenah. He then announced throughout Al-Madeenah to get ready for the invasion on Syria. Furthermore, he wrote letters to 'Uthmaan Ibn Hunayf in Basrah, Abu Moosaa in Koofah and Qays Ibn Sa'd in Egypt to make military preparations from their respective resources and send them to Al-Madeenah on demand.

When most of the people of Al-Madeenah got ready for this purpose, 'Ali placed Al-Madeenah in the charge of Qatham Ibn 'Abbaas and made his son Muhammad Ibn Al-Hanafyyah the standard-bearer of the army. 'Abdullaah Ibn 'Abbaas the commanding officer of the right wing and 'Amr Ibn Abu Salaamah that of the left while he put Abu Laylaa Ibn Al-Jarraah, the brother of Abu 'Ubaydah Ibn Al-Jarraah on the vanguard.

However, he was cautious enough not to engage anyone from among the rioters for any military service. 'Ali had not finished the job of allotting military positions when news was given to him that the Makkans were making preparations against him. Following this news he postponed his march against Syria.

'Aa'ishah seeks retaliation from the murderers:

'Aa'ishah returned to Makkah on hearing the news of 'Uthmaan's martyrdom. On reaching near to Makkah she was also told that the people of Al-Madeenah had taken the oath of allegiance at the hands of 'Ali. She returned to Makkah in such a state that people grouped around her mount. She said to them, "By Allaah, 'Uthmaan has been killed without any fault and I shall take revenge on his behalf."

Hearing this, all the men from Banu Umayyah who had reached Makkah after the martyrdom of 'Uthmaan rose in support of action against the murderers.

When Talhah and Az-Zubayr reached Makkah from Al-Madeenah 'Aa'ishah sent for both and inquired of them the reason behind their arrival in Makkah. They gave the reason that the rioters being in control, the noble and saner people found it totally unsafe to live in Al-Madeenah. 'Aa'ishah then said, "You should then rise against them along with us." Both of them expressed their favor and support to this plan. The entire population of Makkah was obedient to the Mother of the believers . Four persons, 'Abdullaah Ibn 'Aamir and Ya'laa Ibn Munyah, the former governors of Basrah and Yemen, Talhah and Az-Zubayr, were among the commanders of 'Aa'ishah's army and considered to be men of sense and determination.

When 'Aa'ishah came up to Mirbad at the head of her army, 'Uthmaan Ibn Hunayf, the governer of Basrah, came out with his own and a battle line was drawn.

Talhah was on the right wing and Az-Zubayr on the left. Hukaym Ibn Jabalah began the fight by attacking the army of 'Aa'ishah . But the battle stopped in the evening. The next day Hukaym Ibn Jabalah drew the battle line again and the two forces attacked one another. Hukaym was killed on the battlefield and 'Uthmaan Ibn Hunayf had to taste defeat. Basrah was captured by Talhah and Az-Zubayr.

To Be Continued



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The battle of the Camel (Al-Jamal)

'Ali headed to Koofah from Al-Madeenah, when he heard that fighting broke out between 'Uthmaan Ibn Hunayf, his governor in Basrah, and the army of Talhah and Az-Zubayr . 'Ali organized a ten thousand-man army to fight them.

Al-Miqdaad Ibn Al-Aswad and Al-Qa'qaa' Ibn 'Amr were both sent by 'Ali to negotiate with Talhah and Az-Zubayr . The four agreed to refrain from fighting, after each party explained its point of view.

Talhah and Az-Zubayr were of the opinion that the killers of 'Uthmaan should not be left at large. 'Ali thought that the matter should be postponed until things were settled. Therefore, punishment of the killers of 'Uthmaan had already been agreed upon. The difference of opinion between the two sides was only regarding the timing of it.

Following that agreement, the two armies, being relieved, were at rest. However, the followers of 'Abdullaah Ibn Saba', i.e. killers of 'Uthmaan, were not at ease at all because that agreement was against them, as mentioned by At-Tabari, Ibn Katheer, Ibn Al-Atheer, Ibn Hazm and others .

The Saba' sect, therefore, decided to challenge that agreement. Before dawn and while all were sleeping, a group of them attacked the army of Talhah and Az-Zubayr, killed some of its soldiers, and fled. The army of Talhah and Az-Zubayr thought that the army of 'Ali took them by surprise, so they started skirmishes with the army of 'Ali in the morning. Loud cries of war made Talhah and Az-Zubayr come out of their tents. On inquiry they were told that 'Ali's troops had attacked their army. The hue and cry of fighting drew 'Ali out of his tent and the followers of 'Abdullaah Ibn Saba' told him that Talhah and Az-Zubayr had attacked his army all of a sudden and forced his men to fight back. The army of 'Ali thought that the army of Talhah and Az-Zubayr had tricked them and by noon skirmishes erupted into full battle! Leaders from the two armies tried to stop the fighting but in vain.

Ka'b Ibn Sur went to 'Aa'ishah and said, "The battle has begun. It is better for you to mount on a camel and go to the battlefield. Maybe your presence holds them back from fighting and paves the way for peace efforts to begin." But things went contrary to this plan and the flames of war leapt higher and higher.

Fighters from her camp were filled with great fervor when they saw her on the battlefield as if she had come to increase the enthusiasm of her troops.

Talhah and Az-Zubayr kept themselves apart right from the beginning of the battle. But small chieftains of various clans were firm in their resolve to fight on behalf of 'Aa'ishah . But she also, on the other hand, was in favor of peace and agreement.

Ka'b was holding the halter of 'Aa'ishah's camel and it was he who had escorted the Mother of the believers to battlefield hoping for peace. The swordsmen of Basrah clustered around 'Aa'ishah's camel to save it at the cost of their lives with the result the battle took a very serious turn.

'Aa'ishah asked Ka'b to leave the halter and advance raising the Quran and calling the people to follow the dictates of the Book of Allaah. Ka'b did accordingly. But the followers of 'Abdullaah Ibn Saba' showered arrows on him and he was honored with martyrdom. This tragic event filled the people of Basrah with zeal and fervor and in a short while there was a heap of dead bodies around the camel of 'Aa'ishah. The people of Basrah were laying down their lives to save the camel of 'Aa'ishah . It became clear to 'Ali that the presence of 'Aa'ishah in the battlefield would never allow the situation to cool, for her mount had become the center of killing and bloodshed.

'Ali ordered his men to target the camel, for its fall would bring the battle to its end. After a number of attacks and counterattacks someone got an opportunity to strike the legs of the camel, which made it sit down with a shriek. With the fall of the camel, the supporters of 'Aa'ishah dispersed. Al-Qa'qaa' Ibn 'Amr hurried to the spot and asked 'Ali's men to surround the camel on all sides. 'Ali asked Muhammad Ibn Abu Bakr to take care of his sister and see that she suffered no harm.

When her litter was taken out of the heap of the dead bodies and put at a distance, 'Ali reached there and sent his greetings and compliments to her and said, "Dear mother! How are you? May Allaah forgive all your sins." 'Aa'ishah replied, "May Allaah forgive your sins too!" Following this, commanders of various columns appeared to greet the Mother of the believers. 'Aa'ishah then said to Al-Qa'qaa': "I wish I had died twenty years before the event of this day." At the end of the battle, 'Ali made his way among the dead. There, he found Talhah Ibn 'Ubaydillaah who was killed soon after the beginning of the battle by an arrow that opened an old wound. After removing dust from Talhah's face and making his body upright, 'Ali said: "I am sorry to see you this way, dead and unsheltered, O Abu Muhammad!" He wept and said: "I wish I would have died, twenty years before this."

This battle became known as the battle of the Camel (Al-Jamal) because the camel 'Aa'ishah was riding, had become the center of fighting. 'Ali led the funeral prayers of all the slain and had them buried.

The martyrdom of Az- Zubayr

When the battle broke out, Az-Zubayr Ibn Al-'Awwaam who had already decided not to fight, held himself back. Al-Ahnaf Ibn Qays from Basrah was lying with a large number of men encamped separately as a neutral force. When Az-Zubayr passed by his camp, 'Amr Ibn Jurmuz, a man from the army of Al-Ahnaf Ibn Qays, followed him. He went near to him and began to move along with him. In order to dispel any doubt, he asked Az-Zubayr to give his opinion on some issue. Arriving at As-Saba' Valley, Az-Zubayr stood in prayer. And as he lay prostrate, 'Amr Ibn Al-Jurmuz struck him with his weapon and went straight to 'Ali. Ibn Jurmuz entered 'Ali's place carrying Az-Zubayr's sword. He was repeating the words: "I killed Az-Zubayr, I killed Az-Zubayr!" When 'Ali heard him, he said: "Give bad tidings of hell to the killer of the son of Safiyyah (Az-Zubayr). He did not permit his entry to see him." (This was narrated by Ibn Sa'ad.)

Koofah becomes the capital

The most important task before 'Ali following the battle of Al-Jamal was to subdue Syria and force Mu'aawiyah to take Bay'ah. So, he considered it necessary to make Koofah his capital. The Koofis happened to be the main strength of 'Ali's army. There was another reason behind making Koofah the capital and military center of Islam because Koofah was nearer to Damascus than Al-Madeenah. Kufah spreads its shadow of influence up to the Persian provinces.

To be continued

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Selection for Caliphate of Uthman, 24 AH

'Umar was asked before his death to nominate his successor as Abu Bakr had done. 'Umar sent for ’Abdur-Rahmaan bin 'Awf, Sa’ad bin Abu Waqqaas, Az-Zubayr bin Al-Awwaam, Talhah, 'Ali, and 'Uthmaan bin 'Affaan . Talhah was somewhere outside Al-Madeenah. 'Umar said addressing those five persons: "Keep waiting for Talhah for three days: If he returns within this period, he is included in the panel otherwise you should choose your Caliph from among yourselves."


After the demise of 'Umar Al-Miqdaad bin Al-Aswad and Abu Talhah appointed Suhayb as acting Caliph and Imaam for three days as per the will left by 'Umar. Afterwards, they contacted 'Ali, 'Uthmaan, Az-Zubayr, Sa’d, ’Abdur-Rahmaan bin 'Awf and 'Abdullaah bin 'Umar, and assembled them in the house of Miswar bin Makhramah, or according to other accounts, in the house of 'Aa’ishah . Talhah was still out of Al-Madeenah. When all the members arrived, ’Abdur-Rahmaan bin 'Awf got up and said: "Who among those nominated for the Caliphate withdraws his name so that he may be given power to appoint the most excellent and suitable among you as Caliph?" All the persons present kept silent. After a while he announced: "I give up my candidacy and I am ready to perform the duty of appointing a Caliph." All of them agreed to it and empowered him to appoint the Caliph. However, 'Ali kept silent. When ’Abdur-Rahmaan asked him about his silence, he said: "I agree with the opinion of other members, but, you must first promise to make your decision without any favor and personal involvement and do it with an eye on the truth and for the welfare of the whole Ummah."

’Abdur-Rahmaan bin 'Awf said: "I give my word that I will do it without showing any favor to anyone and without any personal involvement just for the sake of truth and for the welfare of the Ummah. But all of you should also promise to agree to the one I choose for the post, and you will rise against the one who disagrees with me." Having heard this, 'Ali and all those present said with one voice: "We will all lend support to your choice and help you in its enforcement."

With this promise on both sides, the session was over and the members went home and waited for three days for the final verdict. During this period, ’Abdur-Rahmaan bin 'Awf kept meeting men of sound judgment and discussing the issue with them. He says that when he said to 'Uthmaan in private; "In case I fail to pledge allegiance to you, to whom will you suggest to do this?" He replied: "You should pledge allegiance to 'Ali." ’Abdur-Rahmaan then put the same question to 'Ali when he was alone, and he took the name of 'Uthmaan. ’Abdur-Rahmaan then asked Az-Zubayr to give his decision, he said: "Pledge your allegiance to either 'Uthmaan or 'Ali." He then referred the issue to Sa’d in private, he took the name of 'Uthmaan. When he took the advice of other men of sound judgment, the majority appeared to be in favor of 'Uthmaan .

On the night before the day of announcing the decision, the members of the panel again assembled in the same house. ’Abdur-Rahmaan bin 'Awf called Az-Zubayr and Sa’d separately and said: "Most of the people appear to be in favor of 'Uthmaan and 'Ali." They too favored them. ’Abdur-Rahmaan then talked to 'Uthmaan and 'Ali separately. The night ended and after the Fajr prayer the mosque was crowded with people, all of them were eagerly awaiting the announcement of ’Abdur-Rahmaan bin 'Awf.

’Abdur-Rahmaan bin 'Awf got up and said addressing the audience: "I did all within my power to know the opinion of all the groups and classes of people and nobody is now to go against my decision. All the members of the consultative body and nominated panel have already conceded to my decision and I have spent all my power to arrive at this decision." Saying this he called 'Uthmaan and asked him to declare his resolve to follow the path shown by Allaah and His Messenger, , and the Righteous Caliphs that passed away before him. 'Uthmaan declared that he would try his best to follow the commands of Allaah and His Messenger, , and follow the examples of Abu Bakr As-Siddeeq and 'Umar . Following this, ’Abdur-Rahmaan bin 'Awf himself first pledged his allegiance to 'Uthmaan and others followed suit.

At the end of the Bay'ah (pledge of allegiance) session, 'Uthmaan bin 'Affaan came to the pulpit and addressing the congregation asked them to follow the good deeds. He also asked them to fear the evil effects of abundant wealth and stressed keeping the Pleasure of Allaah in view. After his preliminary address, he issued an order in the name of the governors and officers mentioning the demise of 'Umar and his own election as the Caliph of Islam. All of them were enjoined to work with honesty and in good faith.

The Conquest of Alexandria

Other than the conquest of Alexandria (Iskandariyah), during the first year of the Caliphate of 'Uthmaan bin 'Affaan there was no other major event. Heraclius had taken refuge in Constantinople (Istanbul) after his flight from Asia Minor and Syria following the fall of Bayt-ul-Maqdis (Jerusalem). Now he was worried about the safety of the rest of his territory, after losing all hope of restoring the lost lands. In the wake of the invasion of Egypt by 'Amr bin Al-'Aas, Muqawqis, the king of Egypt had yielded Egypt and Alexandria to him after earning peace by paying the Jizyah (Head-tax imposed by Islam on the people of the Book). Heraclius considered Egypt his own province and Muqawqis his subordinate. Shock and terror engulfed him on all sides and he died surrounded by defeat and dejection during the Caliphate of 'Umar . His son Qustuntin (Constantine) succeeded him and lost no time in mobilizing a huge army to restore Alexandria. However, Muqawqis prevented the Romans from entering Alexandria and thus kept his promise.

When the Muslims came to know of the Roman invasion, they came quickly from Fustaat (Cairo). The Romans then turned their attack to the Islamic cantonments giving up their campaign for Alexandria. Both the armies came upon each other and a severe battle broke out. The commander of the Roman army was killed and a large number of Roman soldiers met the same fate. The rest barely reached Constantinople by boat. 'Amr bin Al-'Aas lost no time in demolishing the ramparts around Alexandria and then came back to his cantonment in Fustaat. This was done to prevent the possibility of any Roman attack in future trying to turn Alexandria into a fortress. This event took place in 25 AH.

The Conquest of Armenia

The Roman invasion of Alexandria was, in fact, the result of the demise of 'Umar and the same event led to the uprising in the Persian territories of Hamadan and Rey. They declared their freedom from Muslim rule. 'Uthmaan bin 'Affaan dispatched Abu Moosaa Al-Ash'ari, Al-Baraa' bin 'Aazib and Qarazah bin Ka'b to tackle the situation and they did their job well.

Mu'aawiyah the governor of Damascus had sent Habeeb bin Maslamah to Armenia. He conquered a number of cities and forts and forced the Romans to pay the Jizyah. When this news reached the Caesar of Constantinople, he collected 80,000 troops from Malit, Siwas, and Quniah and invaded Habeeb bin Maslamah. Habeeb sent the account of these events to Mu'aawiyah and he gave the news to the Caliph 'Uthmaan bin 'Affaan. The Caliph wrote to Waleed bin 'Uqbah, the governor of Koofah to dispatch 10,000 reinforcements to Armenia who immediately carried out the order with a dispatch of 8,000 troops headed by Salmaan bin Rabee'ah to Armenia.

Habeeb bin Maslamah and Salmaan bin Rabee'ah jointly won Armenia and reached up to the Caucasus Mountains. When Habeeb bin Maslamah returned to Damascus, Mu’aawiyah himself invaded the Roman territory. The Roman fighters escaped leaving Antakiyah (Antioch) and their citadels behind. This event took place in 25 AH.

Events and Changes in Egypt

'Abdullaah bin Sa’d was the foster brother of 'Uthmaan bin 'Affaan. 'Uthmaan bin 'Affaan sent him to Egypt as a governor and head of the public treasury while 'Amr bin Al-'Aas was kept simply as a military officer. When relations among the military officers worsened, the Caliph deposed 'Amr bin Al-'Aas and transferred the entire control of Egypt and Alexandria to 'Abdullaah bin Sa’d.

When the Caesar of Constantinople heard of the deposition of 'Amr bin Al-'Aas and the resulting uprisings in Egypt, he mobilized a huge army towards Alexandria under the command of a seasoned general. The Greeks in the city joined the Roman army’s camp and Alexandria fell to the Romans after slight resistance.

'Amr bin Al-'Aas was again sent to Egypt as a governor who launched such a fierce attack at the Romans that they had to flee from Alexandria after sustaining heavy losses and a heavy toll on their soldiers.

Nevertheless, when peace and normalcy returned to the region and the administration was running smooth, 'Amr bin Al-'Aas was deposed once again and replaced by 'Abdullaah bin Sa’d. This time the Caliph’s decision made 'Abdullaah bin Sa’d feel uneasy and uncomfortable, because his efforts to uphold the deteriorating situation of the region the last time had met with utter failure. However, he was now anxious to make amends for his past failures.

Summarized from: The History of Islam by: Akbar Shah Najeebabadi


To Be Continued

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Caliphate of Umar

Before his death (13 AH), Abu Bakr named 'Umar as his successor. The Muslims at large took Bay’ah (oath of allegiance) at the hand of 'Umar in Al-Madeenah on Tuesday, 23 Jumaadaa Al-Aakhirah, 13 AH. After accepting the oath of allegiance for his Caliphate, 'Umar aroused in the people the determination for taking part in Jihaad. He desired to continue the conquests begun by Abu Bakr . 'Umar had to face the two superpowers -- the Byzantine and Persian Empires. Actually, he was politically and militarily gifted -- a fact that will be proven through this article.


Important events during the Caliphate of 'Umar


Conquest of Damascus (13 AH)


After a major defeat at the hands of the Muslim troops in the battle of Yarmook (mentioned in detail in an article on the Caliphate of Abu Bakr ), the Roman soldiers took to their heels and stopped only at Fihl. Shocked and disappointed, Heraclius issued fresh orders to the Roman soldiers to assemble again. Damascus was refortified and large reinforcements from Palestine and Hims were arranged. Nastas bin Nasturas was appointed the commander-in-chief of the Roman forces. Mahan, the governor of Damascus was already there.

The Muslim army under the command of Abu 'Ubaydah bin Al-Jarraah laid a siege around the city. Although the city contained large barracks, the Romans could not muster enough courage to face the Muslims in the open. They had to take refuge in their strong fortifications and use defensive means of war. At times, the besieged Romans hurled stones through catapults and shot arrows at the Muslim soldiers, which were countered effectively and without delay. The siege dragged on for about six months. The reinforcements dispatched by Heraclius to Damascus were effectively intercepted by Muslim troops. At last, the people of Damascus lost hope of Heraclius' help and their zeal for battle began to dissolve. On being informed of their distress and despair, Abu 'Ubaydah issued orders to all the commanders to launch a full-scale attack the next morning.

When the besieged Romans came to know of the Muslim army’s next step, a deputation appeared before Khaalid bin Al-Waleed at Tuma gate and sought peace, which the Muslim commander immediately granted and entered the city without any fight.

About the same time that Khaalid bin Al-Waleed entered the city with the peace agreement, other commanders and their men forced into the city through ladders and by breaking the gates open. Khaalid and Abu 'Ubaydah came across each other in the middle of the city.

When the two commanders met in the middle of the city, the question arose whether the city was peacefully seized or conquered by force. Some people argued that since Khaalid was simply a commander, he had no right to write a peace document when the commander-in-chief was there to make a final decision. However, Abu 'Ubaydah bin Al-Jarraah rejected this point by saying that if peace or shelter was provided even by an ordinary member of the army, it applied to everyone. He declared peace to prevail in the entire city according to the peace document signed by Khaalid, and every point therein was handled with due care. The citizens of Damascus enjoyed perfect peace. Yazeed bin Abu Sufyaan was appointed as the governor of Damascus, who not only brought peace to the city but let the Roman soldiers go at will.

Conquest of Saida, Irqah and Beirut (in Lebanon today)

Soon after exercising full control over Damascus, Yazeed bin Abu Sufyaan sent his brother, Mu'aawiyah bin Abu Sufyaan to Irqah at the head of a squadron who conquered Irqah without facing any resistance. Yazeed then turned to Saida, Habil and Beirut, and these territories easily yielded to the Muslim attack. Thus, Damascus and the entire territory of Jordan came under control of the Muslims.

Campaigns in Iraq

In the very first week after assuming the Caliphate, 'Umar dispatched Muthannaa bin Haarithah, Sa’eed bin 'Ubayd, Sulayt bin Qays and Abu 'Ubayd bin Mas'ood to Iraq. Even though Abu 'Ubayd bin Mas’ood, the commander-in-chief of the Iraqi forces, left Al-Madeenah along with Muthannaa bin Haarithah, he stopped to take with him men from the Arab tribes along the way and made brief halts at different places, he reached Iraq one month after Muthannaa. On reaching Hirah, Muthannaa bin Haarithah saw with anxiety that the Persians had roused all the Iraqi chiefs against the Muslims, and Rustam, an eminent Persian leader and the governor of Khurasaan, had taken his position in Madaa'in, the Persian capital, after making massive military preparations. With the arrival of Muthannaa, Rustam sent a large army to combat him. Rustam sent another huge army to Kaskar headed by Narsi, a very brave and experienced general of the royal family. The third strong army he entrusted to Jaban and sent it towards the Euphrates, they pitched their camp at Namariq. Muthannaa bin Haarithah on the other hand came out from Hirah and camped at Khaffan.

Meanwhile Abu 'Ubayd bin Mas'ood arrived and took charge of the entire Muslim army. He left Muthannaa at Khaffan, entrusting him with the command of the Muslim cavalry and he launched a massive attack on Jaban at Namariq and tore apart their ranks, causing the Persians to flee the battlefield.

Abu 'Ubayd bin Mas'ood fought fierce battles against Persians and inflicted them with heavy losses. But the Persians had begun to put elephants ahead of their army with archers sitting on them. The horses on the Muslim side had never seen elephants before and they began to flee in terror at the sight of the huge animals. With this scenario of the battle, Abu 'Ubayd asked his men to fight on foot. When the elephants began to trample the Islamic ranks under their feet, Abu 'Ubayd called out to strike their swords at the elephants’ trunks and he was himself the first to do this. He cut off the trunks of several elephants and inflicted deep injuries on their feet, which resulted in the riders being thrown off and killed.

Inspired by the matchless bravery of their commanders and commanding officers, the Muslim soldiers made heroic assaults on the elephants. During these fateful moments, Abu 'Ubayd bin Mas'ood came under the attack of a combat elephant. He fell upon the elephant and struck its trunk off with one stroke of his sword. Despite this, the aggressive animal knocked him down and put its foot on him, crushing his chest. This battle took a toll of 6000 Muslim combatants.


The Battle of Buwayb


When 'Umar came to know of the martyrdom of Abu 'Ubayd and the heavy losses incurred by the Muslims, he became infuriated and with all his energy and resources he commenced preparations for a fresh campaign against the Persians. He dispatched heralds and messengers to all the tribes and roused them to fight for Islam. Several tribes poured into Al-Madeenah and were dispatched to Iraq to lend their help to Muthannaa, who had already launched a recruiting drive, which resulted in a large army.

When the Persians were informed of these preparations, Rustam sent a huge army under the command of Mehraan Hamadaani. The reason Mehraan was nominated to the command, was that he was brought up in Arabia and could, therefore, realize the power and strength of the Arabs and appreciate the magnitude of the task before him. Informed of the Persian movements, Muthannaa bin Haarithah marched with his army and encamped at Buwayb, along the Euphrates. Mehraan, marching from the capital, advanced straight upon Buwayb and pitched his camp on the other side of the Euphrates. Mehraan then sent word to Muthannaa to either come to his side or let him come to his (Muthannaa's) own side. In the light of the bitter experience of the past, Muthannaa invited him to his side. Mehraan crossed the river with his entire army and combat elephants. Then, he arranged his forces in such a manner that he put his infantry in front, followed by elephants with archers sitting on them, and both right and left flanks occupied by cavalry divisions.

The Islamic army was also ready to fight. The Persians initiated the attack, which was answered by the Muslims. The battle grew intense and both sides displayed bravery. However, the Muslims were crowned with victory. When Muthannaa bin Haarithah noticed the Persians running away, he rushed forward and broke the bridge, with the result that a large number of the enemy soldiers were either killed or drowned. Mehraan Hamadani was also killed on the battlefield. The Persian fugitives were given chase up to Sabat. At that point, the entire territory from Sawad to Tigris came under the Muslim forces. This battle took place in Ramadhaan 13 AH.


To Be Continued